Factors that inform the formulation of milk replacers for exotic mammals: ingredients and hand rearing plans
Citation
Kendrick E. 2025. Factors that inform the formulation of milk replacers for exotic mammals: ingredients and hand rearing plans. In Treiber K, Brooks M, D’amato-Anderson J, Nylander J, Eds. Proceedings of the Sixteenth Conference on Zoo and Wildlife Nutrition, AZA Nutrition Advisory Group, Oklahoma City, OK.
Abstract
For some species there is a great deal of information available about milk nutrient composition in the literature. In a few species there are good studies that match formula nutrient composition with neonatal growth, development, and eventual outcome at weaning. But for many species, we must rely on what we know about the species in question and possibly choosing an appropriate related species as a model. Lacking an appropriate, available commercial product, homemade recipes may be necessary, but not without careful consideration of the ingredient sources and nutrient composition compared to mother’s milk.
The previous talk by Dr. Power focused on the macronutrient composition of the milk replacer. However, even if the overall composition on a macro level is correct, the use of a formula for a species different from the type of animal for which it was developed could have severe consequences if the types of nutrients do not also match with their digestive physiology. For example, cow milk contains 16-18 carbon fatty acids while elephant milk contains 10-12 carbon fatty acids. An elephant calf raised on cow’s milk may experience problems related to the absorption and/or metabolism of the fatty acids.
Certainly, selecting an appropriate milk replacer formula is an important part of a successful hand-rearing attempt. However, the plan should also contain details about amounts to offer, the appropriate nipple and bottle selection, feeding schedule, weaning plans, and any other information that may be specific to experiences with the species. The amount of formula to offer, and the frequency of feeds will depend on several factors, and will differ between species, or at least animal types.
Bottle-feeding is a subject that is often only superficially discussed; however, it can be crucial in starting the hand-rearing process. Proper bottle-feeding technique and initiation of a suitable suckling response has a positive impact on the behavioral and emotional needs of the animal. The selection of an appropriate nipple, as well as the suckling response, are both important to protect against pulmonary aspiration.
Additional considerations should include identifying appropriate prep areas, equipment sterilization, ingredient storage, and formula preparation and storage.
In this talk I will summarize the steps needed to formulate an appropriate milk replacer for a mammalian neonate given the constraints of the available products. In addition, I will discuss the above-mentioned logistical factors that need to be considered to be able to deliver the milk replacer in an appropriate manner.
KendrickMilkReplacersZN2025S1.pdf 115 KB
